Transport network optimisation

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4. International case studies

• 4.1   Londong, UK
• 4.2   Portland, Oregon, USA
• 4.3   Odense, Denmark
• 4.4   South East Queensland, Australia
• 4.5   Freiburg, Germany

Five case studies have been assembled to illustrate overseas best practice. A common feature of these is that they all rely on a series of measures in combination to improve transport – no one measure in isolation will solve a city’s transport problems. While they show a commendable variety of creative and integrated measures to optimise network operations and enhance sustainable travel options, there is room for improvement in all of these cities, nevertheless.

4.1   London, UK

London, home to approximately 7.5 million people with a population density of about 4,800 persons per square kilometre (persons/km²), has an extensive transport network catering for a wide variety of modes. In 2007 the mode share statistics for journeys to work indicated 3% walked, 10% cycled, 47% used public transport and 37% used private motor vehicles. To manage increasing congestion on the road network, many different measures have been adopted.

A comprehensive land use plan underpins London’s success including encouragement of mixed development, higher density development and development associated with public transport and restrictive maximum parking standards for new development. London has made extensive use of public awareness campaigns and requires workplace travel plans for new developments.

SCOOT traffic signal control co-ordinates and optimises traffic signals throughout most of the city. Extensive on street parking controls apply in central and inner London and outer town centres while some road space reallocation has occurred to provide for pedestrians, cyclists and public space.

The Transport for London “red routes” network consists of five percent of London’s roads which collectively carry a third of its traffic volumes. Bus priority measures on these routes (and elsewhere) provide preferential treatment for buses. Parking and stopping is prohibited along these red routes to maintain traffic flow. Traffic wardens, community support officers and CCTV cameras are used to monitor and enforce restrictions.

Bus boarders have been introduced at strategic locations to maintain the place of buses in the traffic stream and reduce the overall time required for buses to stop. The reallocation of road space to include high occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes has also increased the level of service to bus users. Selective vehicle detection (SVD) measures have been introduced to prioritise buses at 1450 signalised intersections throughout London’s road network. When a bus is detected near an SVD intersection, the green phase for the bus movement may be called earlier by shortening or skipping the green phases of other movements, or the bus’s green phase may be lengthened to allow the bus time to reach and progress through the intersection. In conjunction with SVD, the iBUS system has been introduced. This system tracks all of London’s 8,000 buses and can provide real-time information to users and operators and can be linked to the SVD intersections to trigger priority. There has been a substantial increase in bus service provision in conjunction with (and subsidised by) the congestion charging system.

London has an extensive cycling network consisting of on-road cycle lanes and off-road paths, although variations of widths of cycle lanes and the heavy volumes of surrounding motor traffic have been identified as barriers to cycling in London, especially during peak periods. Various cycling promotion schemes such as “BikeIt”, “safe routes to schools” and “TravelSmart” are operated in London and throughout the UK aimed at encouraging more people to cycle more often.

In 2003 a congestion charging scheme was introduced to reduce congestion and also produce revenue to fund sustainable transport initiatives. Drivers of private vehicles are charged a fee of £8 (increase in 2005 from an initial value of £5) to drive in the central city during weekdays between the times of 7 am and 6:30 pm. CCTV cameras at the charging area boundaries are used to photograph vehicles entering the area and infrared technology used to identify number plates and therefore charge registered owners. Several payment options are available and drivers can pre-purchase credit but if the charge is not paid on the day it is incurred a further fine is applied.

The congestion charging scheme has been highly controversial, a source of much opposition from private vehicle users and a major political standpoint. However, in its first five years of operation it has reduced traffic entering the zone by 21%, increased cycle traffic within the zone by 43% and produced approximately £10 million in profit (after all operating and capital costs have been paid [67]) which has been invested on bus network improvements, road safety schemes, safe routes to schools programmes, walking and cycling initiatives, distribution and freight measures and road and bridge maintenance and upgrades.

Figure 1: Vehicles entering London's congestion charging zone

The disincentives to private motor travel of congestion charging in London have been countered with incentives for public transport, walking and cycling use. Bus, train and tram services in London operate with an integrated ticketing system – known as the Oyster card. This provides a consistent pricing system and payment mechanism between all modes. This improves convenience and usability for passengers and improves travel times by reducing the amount of time required to collect fares when boarding services.

The pricing system that accompanies the Oyster card is intended to entice users by offering discounts over cash fares and fare caps for daily travel. Different payment options and mechanisms are available, including ticket machines, internet payments or automatic transactions. In 2006, some 10 million Oyster cards were issued, with approximately half of these in regular use, equating to approximately 80% of all public transport payment.

The London Lorry Control Scheme (LLCS) consists of controls on the movement of any heavy goods vehicles over 18 tonnes maximum gross weight at night and weekends to help minimise noise pollution in residential areas during unsocial hours. LLCS provides a website with customised trucks maps and free permits. A partnership between the trucking industry and London councils, LLCS provides information for truck drivers and transport managers. The site assists in route planning and route approval.

Transport for London is responsible for virtually all of the above, except for surface rail services and local roads (for which it instructs the London boroughs); it covers much of the travel to work area, but not all of it, which extends throughout South East England; there is an integrated strategy, and congestion charging and bus service improvements particularly demonstrate the principles of integration; the Oyster Card provides integrated fares, except for some surface rail, but there is not much integration of service levels or information. Overall, the London example provides many excellent features.

4.2   Portland, Oregon, USA

Portland, Oregon has approximately 568,000 residents, with a density of about 1,500 persons/km². Recent estimates suggest that 6% of daily trips in Portland are made by cycle; little information is available on the mode share of other modes.

Portland uses Smart Growth principles aimed at increasing urban densities and improving the efficiency of land use and transport systems. Urban Growth Boundaries (UGBs) were established in 1973; since then the population has increased by 17 percent, but the UGBs increased only 2 percent. The Smart Growth system has much opposition, with critics claiming that it results in undesirable and expensive housing options, increases suburbanisation, increases congestion and deprives citizens of their preference for automobile dependence. However, it has been shown that Portland residents experience lower congestion time and monetary costs per capita than would be expected given the population of the city and that neighbourhood density has less effect than total metropolitan population.

Portland boasts a comprehensive public transport system consisting of bus, light rail, streetcars and an aerial tram; all four of these modes are also equipped to carry bicycles. Services are frequent and operate seven days a week. Fares are paid by purchasing tickets, for which a variety of different plans are available with integrated ticketing between the three modes. A large section of downtown Portland is designated as “Fareless Square” – where there is no charge for public transport.

Figure 2: A Portland streetcar

Portland also has a high level of provision for cyclists and has international recognition as a cycle-friendly city. It has an extensive cycle network of on- and off- road facilities, signage and parking and runs a number of different cycling promotion programmes aimed at encouraging more people to cycle and improving safety awareness.

The Portland Office of Transportation coordinates a car pooling scheme and gives guidance to employers on how to motivate employees to car pool through provision of facilities and financial incentives. The city is also home to a privately operated car-sharing scheme called “Zipcar” whereby members reserve vehicles to travel between specified destinations and pay hourly rates for usage, which includes petrol, insurance, maintenance and mileage costs.

A number of different plans are in place to encourage use of sustainable modes and reduce vehicle emissions, Portland has a “downtown parking lid” which limits the amount of commuter parking available in the central business district (CBD) and restricts parking ratios for new development. The business energy tax credits programme rewards business who enable employees to telework, fund public transport passes or use hybrid vehicles by giving them tax reductions on costs of implementing such projects. A property tax exemption is available to new developments in pedestrian and public transport districts. Not all incentives for public transport are financial - the TriMet public art programme aims to promote increased public transport use and community pride by integrating temporary and permanent art into the public transport system.

4.3   Odense, Denamrk

Odense, the third largest city in Denmark, has approximately 185,000 residents and a population density of about 600 persons/km². In 2001, the mode share in Odense consisted of 34% combined walking and cycling, 8% public transport and 57% private motor vehicle, however more recent data suggests that cycling itself now comprises 35% of the mode share. 80% of all school children either walk or cycle to school as a result of 30 years ongoing promotion of school routes. 85% of citizens find Odense to be an attractive city for cycling.

The cycle masterplan was drawn in 1976 and is now more than 90% complete. Odense now has a total of 510 km of cycle paths which are mainly one-way. All new developments must have cycle facilities built in from the start. Cycle parking facilities are provided in all new workplaces, institutions and other significant destinations.

From 1999 to 2002, Odense was a cycle demonstration city, a project aimed at increasing the number of people cycling, the number of cycle trips and the safety of cyclists. A number of campaigns were aimed at informing and motivating different groups of people, with the focus being on personal contact between campaign staff and participants rather than provision of informational material. Cycle trailers (for transporting children and goods) with free servicing every three months were provided to 6,000 families.

Figure 3: Cycle parking in Odense

From 2003 to 2006, Odense was part of the European Union’s Liveable Cities project which aimed to promote initiatives, development and activity in historical city centres for the benefit of citizens, visitors and commercial traders. As well as focusing on cultural and heritage aspects, this project was concerned with management of movement, regeneration of public spaces and urban design. There was a significant focus on improving amenity to pedestrians.

Cycling has now been identified as perhaps the most important way of tackling health problems in Denmark. Research from Odense University indicates that 50 times as many lives are saved in Denmark due to the health benefits of cycling compared to the number of lives lost cycling.

After 25 years of political discussion the council recently decided to close the main road through Odense’s city centre, carrying 35,000 motor vehicles per day. This will boost cycle traffic and public transport will benefit from a planned light rail system.

End-of-trip facilities such as bicycle parking spaces and underground locker rooms were introduced. Maintenance of facilities was improved, ensuring that all bicycle paths were maintained by the same practices applied to the city’s largest roads. Road inspectors were required to regularly inspect bike paths by cycling. The operation of the road network was also significantly modified to prioritise cyclists. Green waves between sets of traffic signals were set based on cycling (not driving) speeds. At signalised intersections where cyclists cross roads, road rules were changed to give cyclists right of way over motorists.

Car-sharing initiatives (called “car clubs”) have been introduced to give cyclists access to vehicles when required.

Odense also has a focus on improving public transport with many novel initiatives such as the ability to purchase bus tickets by sending text messages from mobile phones. Bus priority is provided in the form of special bus phases at traffic signal controlled intersections. Real time information regarding buses is available by mobile phone, internet and at bus stops. The city also plans to install a light rail system in the near future.

Figure 4: Cycling in Odense

4.4   South East Queensland, Australia

South East Queensland has a population of 3.1 million; 90 percent of which is located in Brisbane, the Sunshine Coast and the Gold Coast. This gives a high variation in population density over the region ranging from about 330 persons/km² in the Gold Coast to much lower in other localities, the overall density for the whole region being about 140 persons/km². The region is said to be the fastest growing in Australia, which puts high demand on its transportation system. In 2004 the mode share for Brisbane city was 81% private vehicle, 8% public transport, 2% cycling and 9% walking.

One of the aims of the South East Queensland Regional Plan 2005-26 is to integrate land use, transport and economic activity. This is to be achieved by transit-oriented development, where a mix of residential (30 to 120 dwellings per hectare) and employment land use is located near high quality public transport facilities. The regional plan offers guidance on the formulation of local growth management strategies to achieve these criteria. The plan defines freight routes that are to be improved to accommodate the predicted doubling of freight volumes by 2020, improve freight efficiency and facilitate economic growth. The plan also aims to coordinate air and sea transport to increase efficacy of both freight and passenger transport.

South East Queensland operates a system of integrated public transport, known as TransLink, which includes rail, bus and ferry networks. The switch to integration, as well as making public transport more-user friendly, has had significant operational benefits. TransLink operates under one organisation, rather than multiple individual organisation. There is more co-ordination between services, for example when there are disruptions to rail services (e.g. due to maintenance) operators provide alternative bus services to ensure passengers are not disadvantaged.

A variety of ticket options are available to users of TransLink services based on different durations of travel, as well as the smart card “Go card” system. The Go card must be held up to a card reader at the start and end of each journey made on a TransLink service and fares are calculated based on the number of zones travelled. Go cards are pre-paid through a variety of different options and offer discounts after six trips in a week have been made.

Some integration between cycling and public transport is available in South East Queensland, however levels vary between cities. In Brisbane, bikes are allowed on ferries and on trains during off-peak hours at no extra charge. Three Brisbane bus routes also have bike racks.

South East Queensland participates in a TravelSmart programme which is aimed at increasing the level of sustainable transport use through individualised marketing. TravelSmart teams meet with communities, workplaces, schools or families to tailor sustainable travel programmes to their needs. A TravelSmart project was conducted in Brisbane North in 2006/07. Of the 75,000 households in the target area approximately 41,000 chose to take part and received information and services aimed at increasing their use of sustainable transport or (for those who were unable or unwilling to use public transport, walking or cycling) make their use of private vehicles more environmentally friendly. For those who participated, overall the combined modal share of walking, cycling and public transport increased from 17% to 24%, and that of the car and other motorised private modes decreased from 83% to 76%.

4.5   Freiburg, Germany

Freiburg is a city with approximately 220,000 residents on the south-western edge of Germany. The population density is about 1,400 persons/km².

The city is well known for its early decision to move away from car-centric transport planning that was otherwise common in the 1960s. The transportation master plan of 1979 favoured environmentally friendly types of traffic. In the overall traffic concept of 1989 a principal purpose was specified to make the so-called environmental group (i.e. the pollution free modes – foot and bicycle traffic as well as public transport) more attractive to offer road users an alternative to the car. The remaining motor traffic was to be accommodated in an environmentally and city-compatible way, minimising noise, exhaust gases and road safety problems.

Figure 5 shows the significant change in model split achieved between 1982 and 1999. Walking (the blue columns) has clearly decreased (this is a country wide trend), while bicycle traffic (green) and public transport (purple) have increased and passenger car transport (yellow) has decreased.

Figure 5: Walking, cycling, public transport and car (driver / passenger) trends in Freiburg

A common German tool of reducing traffic volumes in local street networks is the provision of one-way streets, channelling through traffic onto arterial routes. Freiburg has 120 one-way streets, and based on a change of the German traffic regulations in 1997, which enabled the opening of one-way streets for cycling in a contra-flow direction, has by now opened 50% of its one-way streets for contra-flow cycling.

Freiburg received the first European Public Transport Award for its excellent public transport system. In 2006, the public provider carried 71 million people on its four tram and 26 bus routes, which given the coverage of the public transport system (which extends slightly beyond the city boundaries) represents 0.8 public transport journeys per person per day. Citywide integrated ticketing was introduced in 1984, and by now covers the wider region.

 

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Page created: 10 October 2008